Reviewed International Journal of Political Science and Public Administration

RELATIONS BETWEEN BORDER ZONE KAMBA AND SOMALI COMMUNITIES OF KITUI-TANA RIVER COUNTIES IN KENYA

MALUKI KYAVOA — 2025-03-25

This study examines the relations between the Kamba and Somali communities in Kenya from around 1850 to 1963. An analysis of these relations in the pre-colonial period was taken in an attempt to lay a foundation for assessing the relations in the colonial period. Colonial policies and their impact on the Kamba-Somali relations up to 1938 were investigated. Effects of the Second World War and decolonization process on the relations between Kamba and Somali up to 1963 were assessed too. The study argues that the initial settlement of both the Kamba and Somali communities in the area of study was majorly determined by environmental factors which in turn shaped the demand and supply of products and therefore relation between the two communities. With the onset of colonialism, relations between the two communities were heavily influenced by the policy of pacification which endeavored to create a rigid boundary between the two communities and so affected free interactions and trade. Later, during the Second World War and the period after the war, the relations between these two communities were characterized by tension, division, and suspicion. The trends of interaction were interpreted using constructivism and social inter-dependence theories. The study was justified in that it examined two communities instead of one and demonstrated trends that come from such dynamic interactions as contrasted with relations within one group. Literature on inter-ethnic relations was reviewed for sharper conceptualization of the study. Two research designs were used. These two included descriptive and historical research designs. Methodologically, a purposive sampling technique was employed. Snow-ball sampling technique was also used where knowledgeable informants referred the researcher to others who also had information about the study. Data for the study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was verified against secondary information. Secondary data was obtained from books, journals, archives and newspapers.

IMPACT OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 – 1885) ON EAC DEVELOPMENT

RWIGEMA PIERRE CELESTIN — 2025-03-26

The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, which led to the partitioning of Africa among European powers, left a profound and lasting impact on the East African Community (EAC) region, consisting of Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Somalia, Tanzania, and Uganda. This paper examines the legacy of the Berlin Conference and its influence on the EAC, focusing on the challenges and problems arising from the artificial borders, colonial governance structures, and economic exploitation. Prior to the conference, Africa was home to rich indigenous cultures, powerful kingdoms, and intricate political systems, which were disregarded by European powers in their quest for territorial dominance and resource control. The division of Africa, often along arbitrary lines, disrupted longstanding social, cultural, and political networks, leaving behind a fragmented continent. The key provisions of the Berlin Conference, such as the "effective occupation" clause, formalized the domination of African territories by European nations, with no regard for African sovereignty. These decisions exacerbated ethnic and political tensions, often forcing disparate groups to coexist within newly drawn borders, leading to conflicts and instability that persist to this day. The interests of the colonial powers, particularly Britain, Belgium, Germany, and France, were primarily driven by economic exploitation and the desire for strategic advantages in the race for global power. This led to the extraction of Africa's natural resources and the establishment of exploitative economic systems that have shaped the region’s underdevelopment. The lasting effects of these colonial policies are still felt today in the EAC, where regional integration remains difficult due to the historical baggage of arbitrary borders, ethnic tensions, and economic disparities. Despite efforts to foster cooperation and regional integration through the EAC, challenges such as cross-border conflicts, power struggles, and the legacy of colonial rule continue to impede progress. This paper explores how these historical divisions have influenced political governance, economic policies, and social relations within the EAC region. It also examines current efforts to address these issues, including region\al integration initiatives, conflict resolution mechanisms, and socio-economic development programs. The conclusion offers recommendations for overcoming the challenges posed by the Berlin Conference’s legacy, focusing on the importance of promoting unity, good governance, and sustainable development within the EAC. These efforts are crucial for the region’s stability and prosperity as it works to heal the wounds of its colonial past and build a more integrated and equitable future.

INFLUENCE OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ON WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS IN BAIDOA, SOMALIA

ABDIMAJID ALI MOHAMED — 2025-04-04

This study examined the influence of educational attainment on women's political participation in Baidoa, Somalia, where women face significant barriers to political engagement despite national and international calls for greater inclusion. In Somalia's patriarchal society, with its complex clan-based politics, women's representation in governance remains below 25%, with even lower rates in rural and conflict-affected regions like Baidoa. Educational disparities compound these challenges, with women disproportionately underrepresented in both primary and secondary education. Using a descriptive research design that integrated qualitative and quantitative approaches, the study collected data from 86 respondents including voters, political leaders, community leaders, and local authority representatives. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, with regression analysis revealing a strong positive relationship between educational attainment and women's political participation (β = 0.421, p = 0.000). The findings indicated that education serves as a catalyst for breaking down barriers to women's political participation (mean = 4.2674) and empowers women to engage confidently in political activities (mean = 4.419). Educational attainment explains approximately 69.5% of variation in women's political participation (R² = 0.695), suggesting its critical role in equipping women with the necessary skills, confidence, and awareness to effectively engage in politics. The study recommended increasing women's access to quality education in Baidoa, particularly in rural areas, implementing policies to remove barriers to education for women, and conducting community awareness campaigns to challenge socio-cultural norms that hinder women's political participation.

EXAMINING MINING CONFLICTS ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN EASTERN EQUATORIA STATE, SOUTH SUDAN

BONFAS MURIMI MATIKO — 2025-04-10

This study explored mining conflicts on community development in Eastern Equatoria State, South Sudan. The specific objectives of this study were to investigate the nature of mining conflicts in Eastern Equatoria State, South Sudan, to examine their consequences on community development in Eastern Equatoria State, South Sudan, and to identify potential strategies to mitigate these conflicts and promote sustainable development in mining-affected communities in Eastern Equatoria State. The study was guided by Resource Abundance Theory and Human Ecology Theory (HET). A descriptive research design based on the quantitative and qualitative approach was adopted. Computer programs like the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) were used to develop tables and figures, using frequency and percentage statistics. Both primary and secondary methods of data collection were employed. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to select respondents. Conflicts were prevalent, including resource exploitation (31.82%), violence (24.55%), and land disputes (10%), which severely hindered community development. Mining conflicts disrupted education (96.36%) and healthcare (96.36%), worsened unemployment (80%), and harmed social cohesion (85.5%). Environmental impacts, such as water pollution and deforestation, were reported by 87.3% of respondents. Key strategies to mitigate conflicts included increased government oversight (30%) and better compensation mechanisms (24.5%), with high community interest in participation (86.4%). The study concluded that mining conflicts in Eastern Equatoria negatively impact community development and social stability, with severe consequences for education, healthcare, and the environment. There is a significant gap in government intervention, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and a pressing need for improved regulation. Community-based and collaborative approaches with mining companies were viewed as essential to sustainable conflict resolution. The study recommended that government oversight should be strengthened to enforce mining regulations effectively. Mining companies should establish fair compensation mechanisms for affected communities to foster equitable resource sharing. Collaboration with local communities should be prioritized, including joint decision-making initiatives to align operations with community needs. Finally, building local capacity in mining oversight and sustainable development practices is essential to empower communities and reduce long-term conflicts.

BELGIUM'S LEGACY IN THE AFRICAN GREAT LAKES REGION

RWIGEMA PIERRE CELESTIN, PhD, PGDE — 2025-04-30

Belgium’s colonial history in the African Great Lakes Region, encompassing Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), is marked by a complex and deeply problematic legacy that continues to affect these nations to this day. Beginning with the establishment of King Leopold II’s personal rule over the Congo Free State in the late 19th century, and continuing under formal Belgian administration, the colonial policies and practices employed by Belgium were designed to extract resources and consolidate power at the expense of indigenous populations. The Belgian presence, characterized by its exploitative and paternalistic governance model, entrenched social and political divisions, dismantled traditional systems of governance, and left these countries ill-prepared for self-rule. This work critically analyzes the multifaceted and long-lasting negative impacts of Belgian colonialism in Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC, focusing on the political, socio-cultural, economic, and environmental repercussions that continue to shape the region. The Belgian colonial rule was primarily driven by economic gain, with an emphasis on resource extraction, forced labor, and the exploitation of indigenous populations. In the Congo, the brutal extraction of rubber only under Leopold II’s regime led to mass deaths and widespread trauma, while the institution of forced labor and harsh penalties for non-compliance served as tools to enforce colonial objectives. In Rwanda and Burundi, the Belgians introduced a system of indirect rule, which involved manipulating traditional ethnic divisions and structures to maintain control. This strategy of “divide and rule” entrenched ethnic tensions, particularly between the Hutu and Tutsi populations, setting the stage for breaking social cohesion leading to conflict and genocide against Tutsi. Although Belgium was formally responsible for the administration of these territories, the lack of proper political transition mechanisms following independence left these nations vulnerable to instability, with ethnic violence and political strife continuing for decades. In terms of socio-cultural impacts, Belgian colonialism significantly altered the region's social fabric. The introduction of European education, language, and religious practices led to cultural alienation and the erosion of traditional practices. Indigenous governance systems were disregarded, and traditional leaders were replaced or undermined by Belgian-appointed officials. The policy of institutionalizing ethnic identities in Rwanda and Burundi further exacerbated divisions between groups, which ultimately fueled violence and social fragmentation. These historical interventions have had long-lasting effects on national identity formation, as many individuals in the region continue to struggle with issues of cultural identity and belonging. Belgium’s role in shaping these identities remains a contentious issue, as the manipulation of ethnicity during colonial rule laid the groundwork for the intergenerational trauma that communities still face. Economically, Belgium's colonial exploitation has had enduring consequences, particularly in the DRC. The extraction of vast mineral resources, along with the forced labor of local populations, significantly hindered the development of local economies. Belgian policies focused primarily on the extraction of wealth from the region, with little regard for the economic development of the indigenous population. Infrastructure development was concentrated in select urban areas, leaving rural regions neglected and underdeveloped. These disparities in economic development have persisted long after independence, with regions like eastern DRC, rural Rwanda, and Burundi continuing to face economic challenges. Belgian colonial policies exacerbated wealth inequality, leading to the entrenchment of poverty and limited opportunities for socio-economic mobility in these countries. The environmental impacts of Belgian colonialism were also profound and far-reaching. In the DRC, unregulated mining practices resulted in widespread environmental degradation, including deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. The introduction of cash crops, such as rubber and coffee, displaced subsistence farming, which compromised local food security and contributed to long-term ecological imbalances. In addition, the Belgian colonial government’s disregard for environmental sustainability created conditions that continue to hinder agricultural productivity and resource management in these countries. Environmental degradation remains a major issue in the region, affecting the livelihoods of millions and contributing to ongoing conflicts over land and natural resources. Belgium’s colonial policies also contributed to numerous human rights abuses that left lasting scars on the region. The Congo Free State under King Leopold II is infamous for its system of terror, where millions of Congolese were killed, mutilated, or subjected to brutal treatment in the name of resource extraction. Although formal Belgian rule in the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi was less overtly brutal, human rights abuses continued through forced labor, executions, and other forms of repression. These abuses, especially in the Congo, traumatized entire generations, and their legacy continues to affect the mental health and social cohesion of the affected populations. The scars of Belgian colonial violence remain deeply ingrained in the collective memory of the region, influencing contemporary political and social dynamics. The long-term consequences of Belgian colonialism are still felt today in the political, economic, and social structures of Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC. The introduction and the manipulation of ethnic identities, the suppression of indigenous governance systems, and the prioritization of resource extraction have contributed to cycles of instability, violence, and underdevelopment. In the DRC, political instability and conflict have persisted for decades, while Rwanda and Burundi have struggled with ethnic tensions and cycles of violence, most notably culminating in the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi. Although the region has made progress in certain areas, such as infrastructure development and education, the colonial legacy remains a barrier to sustainable development and lasting peace. In conclusion, the colonial history of Belgium rule and practices in the African Great Lakes Region has left a profound and lasting legacy that continues to affect Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC. The region's political instability, ethnic divisions, economic challenges, and environmental degradation can all be traced back to colonial policies and practices. Addressing these legacies requires a comprehensive and multifaceted approach, including historical acknowledgment, reparative justice, and international cooperation. Only by confronting the colonial past can these nations hope to achieve true peace, reconciliation, and development in the future.

THE POLITICAL IDEOLOGY OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN POLITICAL SYSTEMS AND INSTITUTIONS FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

ABDIWELI HUSSEIN — 2025-05-01

This study examined the political ideology embedded in indigenous African political systems and institutions from antiquity to the nineteenth century. Through qualitative historical analysis, the research highlighted the complexity, adaptability, and legitimacy of African governance systems before colonial imposition. The study was guided by African Communitarianism and Postcolonial theory to explore how African societies developed unique political ideologies based on kinship, religion, and participatory governance. Findings indicated that these systems were not primitive but were grounded in values of consensus, justice, and accountability. Indigenous political structures ranged from centralized empires like Songhai and Kongo to decentralized systems such as the Igbo, emphasizing the role of community elders and age-grades. Religious and kinship ties played a significant role in the legitimacy of rulers, with many leaders viewed as divinely sanctioned. Furthermore, the systems exhibited remarkable adaptability, incorporating external influences such as Islam while maintaining core cultural values. However, colonialism disrupted these systems, delegitimizing traditional authority and imposing foreign governance structures. The research concluded that indigenous African political thought offered valuable insights for contemporary governance and state-building in Africa, urging a re-evaluation of African political history and the inclusion of indigenous principles in modern political discourse.