INFLUENCE OF CHILD LABOUR ON THE ENROLMENT AND ACADEMIC LEARNER PARTICIPATION OF PRE-PRIMARY AND LOWER PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN MURANG’A COUNTY, KENYA
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Abstract
Child labour poses a significant challenge to the educational participation of young learners in Murang’a County, Kenya. This study investigates the various forms of child labour affecting pre-primary and lower primary school pupils and examines their impact on school enrolment rates. Employing a descriptive survey design, data was gathered from a representative sample encompassing 96 teachers, 192 pupils, 192 parents, and 24 head teachers across 8 sub-counties, totaling 528 respondents. The study utilized questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews to collect qualitative and quantitative data on the causes of child labour, its effects on school participation, and the role of parents. Analysis of the data revealed significant findings: child labour significantly reduces school enrolment rates, predominantly driven by economic factors. Qualitative insights underscored the socio-economic roots of child labour, while quantitative analysis provided statistical clarity on interrelated variables. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was employed to evaluate these associations. The study emphasizes the urgent need for coordinated interventions to address child labour and mitigate its detrimental impact on educational outcomes. Recommendations include targeted measures to alleviate economic pressures leading to child labour, enhanced parental engagement in education, and policy initiatives to ensure uninterrupted early schooling for all children. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing effective strategies that uphold children’s right to education and foster their educational participation in Murang’a County and beyond.
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References
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Baland, J., and J. Robinson (2000). “Is Child labour Inefficient?” Journal of Political Economy, 108:663-679
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Best J. and Khan. v. (1998) Research in education. Boston Alyn and Bacon.
Bhalotra S (2003). Child labour in Africa. In OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers.
Binder, M. & D. Scorning (1999). Labour force participation and household work of urban school children in Mexico: Characteristics and Consequences, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp.123-146.
Fallon P, Tzannatos C (1998). Child labour: Issues and Directions for the World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Fuseini, T., & Daniel, M. (2020). Child begging, as a manifestation of child labour in Dagbon of northern Ghana, the perspectives of Mallams and parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104836
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Grootaert C, Patrinos HA (1999). The Policy Analysis of Child Labour: A Comparative Study. New York: St. Martin's Press
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Post D (2002). Children's Work, Schooling, and Welfare in Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Psacharopoulos G (1997). Child labour Versus Educational Attainment. Some Evidence from Latin America. J. Population Econ. 10: 377-386.
Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2015). Is child labour a barrier to school enrolment in low- and middle-income countries? International Journal of Educational Development, 41, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.02.001
Ray, R. & G. Lancaster (2003). Does Child Labour Affect School Attendance and School Performance? Multi Country Evidence on SIMPOC Data. Unpublished Report ILO/IPEC.
Row Botham, S., & Mitter, S. (Eds.). (1994). Dignity and Daily Bread; New Forms of Economic Organizing Among Poor Women in the 3rd World and the 1st. London: Routledge.
Schwikowski, M. (2021, May 16). Child labour on the rise in Africa: DW: 16.05.2022. DW.COM. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.dw.com/en/child-labor-on-the-rise-in-Africa/a-61772211
State Institute of Statistics & ILO (2001). Child Labour in Turkey 1999. Ankara: SIS Printing Division, December 2001.
Tungesvik, R (2000) Education Child Labour-an initial mapping of the field, LINS: Oslo College/Hogskolen Oslo.
Tutor house. (2022, March 8). Gender inequality in Education. Gender Inequality In Education Tutor House. Retrieved June 13, 2022, from https://tutorhouse.co.uk/blog/gender-inequality-in-education
UNICEF. (2021, June 9). Child labour. UNICEF. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour
UNICEF. (2021, June 9). Child labour. UNICEF. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour#:~:text=The%20consequences%20are% 20staggering.,rights %20and%20threateni ng%20their%20futures.
UNICEF (2007). The State of the World’s Children, New York: UNICEF.
Wainana, James (2011, June). District warns Against child labour. The star -Accessed at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201106201399.html on 11/4/2016
World vision Australia (2012). Discuss child labour is better than living in poverty. Accessed from: http://www.worldvision.com.au/OurWork/Solutions/ChildRescue.aspx Accessed on 6/6/2016
Zibani, Nadia (2002). “Gender Differentials in Children’s Work Activities: 1988-98,” Chapter 6 in Ragui Assaad, ed. The Egyptian Labour Market in an Era of Reform. New York and Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, pp. 178-220.
Akabayashi, H. & Psacharopoulos. (1999). The trade-off between child labour and human capital formation: A Tanzanian case study. The Journal of Development Studies, 35 (5), pp. 121.
Amma, H. Baghdellah, J., Kiondo, E., Madhi, M., Mwandayi, E., & Soko, P. (2000), The Nature and Extent of Child Labour in Tanzania: A Baseline Study, ILO-IPEC, March
Arya, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razariar, A. (1972). Introduction to Research in E York: Random House Inc.
Assaad, Ragui, Levison, Deborah, Zibani, Nadia (2006). Working papers series: The effects of Child labour evidence from Egypt: Minnesota, Population Centre, and Minneapolis
Baland, J., and J. Robinson (2000). “Is Child labour Inefficient?” Journal of Political Economy, 108:663-679
Bass LE (2004). Child labour in sub-Saharan Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Best J. and Khan. v. (1998) Research in education. Boston Alyn and Bacon.
Bhalotra S (2003). Child labour in Africa. In OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers.
Binder, M. & D. Scorning (1999). Labour force participation and household work of urban school children in Mexico: Characteristics and Consequences, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp.123-146.
Fallon P, Tzannatos C (1998). Child labour: Issues and Directions for the World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Fuseini, T., & Daniel, M. (2020). Child begging, as a manifestation of child labour in Dagbon of northern Ghana, the perspectives of Mallams and parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104836
Gay. L.R. (1992). Education Research; competencies for analysis application. London Charles E; Mairill publishing company.
Grootaert C, Patrinos HA (1999). The Policy Analysis of Child Labour: A Comparative Study. New York: St. Martin's Press
Heady, C. (2003). The effect of child labour on learning achievement, World Development, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 385-398.
Hiraoka R (1997). Whither Child Labour in India. Myth of Its Relation to Poverty and Economic Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
ILO. (2020). What is child labour (IPEC). Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--eon/index.htm
ILO. (2012). ILO Global Estimate of Forced Labour. International Labor Office, 1–48.
ILO (1991), Child labour: Law and practice, Conditions of Work Digest, vol.10.
ILO/IPEC Tanzania (2001) Focusing on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, Dar es Salaam.
International Save the Children Alliance (2003). Save the children. London. Save the children in UK.
Jensen P, Nielsen HS (1997). Child Labour or School Attendance? Evidence from Zambia. J. Population Econ., 10: 407-424.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2010) 2009 Population and Housing Census Highlights. http://www.knbs.or.ke/Censu Results/KNBS Brochure. pdf. Accessed on10/6/16
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2007). Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey (KIHBS) 2005/2006. (Vol. I.) Basic Report. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Ki Moon, B., (2007) "Children and the Millennium Development Goals: Progress towards a World Fit for Children." United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
Knight, J.B. and Sabot, R.H. (1990). Educational Productivity and Inequality: The East African Natural Experience. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kombo, D. Kisilin & Tromp, D.L.A (2006). Proposal and Thesis writing, Pauline’s Publications Labour. Brazil
Lam, D. and Schoeni, R. (1993). “Effects of Family Background on Earnings and Returns to Schooling: Evidence from Brazil”. Journal of Political Economy, 101.
Manda, D. K, Kimalu, P. K, Nafula, N. N, Kimani, D. N, Nyaga, R. K., et al. (2003). Costs and Benefits of Eliminating Child Labour in Kenya. Working Paper Series W/10/2003. Nairobi: Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis.
Maslow, A., & Herzeberg, A. (1954). Hierarchy of needs. AH Maslow. ea., Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper
MOE (2014). Basic education statistical booklet Nairobi: MOE
Moyi, Peter (2010). Child labour and school attendance in Kenya. Educational Research and Reviews Vol. 6(1), pp. 26-35, January 2011. Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR:Accessed on 11/6/2016
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (1999). Quantitative Approach. Nairobi: Acts Press.
Murang’a County Government (2014). First County integrated development plan 2013-2017.
Ndung'u, J. K. (2017). Factors That Contribute to Low Enrolment in Public Primary Schools. MMARAU Institutional Repository. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from http://ir-library.mmarau.ac.ke:8080/handle/123456789/4900
Orodho JA (2009). Elements of Education and Social Science Research Methods. Maseno: Kanauji Publisher. Second edition. ISB: 978-9966-7350-1-1.
Orodho, A.J. (2005). Techniques of Writing Research Proposal and Reports in Education and Social Sciences. Nairobi: Kanezja HP Enterprises.
Patrick, M. E (2000): Is there a child trap? Inter- regeneration persistence of child Labour Brazil Parsitau, D. S. (2017, July 25). How girls' education intersects with Maasai culture in Kenya. Brookings. Retrieved July 2, 2022, from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-development/2017/07/25/how-girls-education-intersects-with-maasai-culture-in-Kenya/
Post D (2002). Children's Work, Schooling, and Welfare in Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Psacharopoulos G (1997). Child labour Versus Educational Attainment. Some Evidence from Latin America. J. Population Econ. 10: 377-386.
Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2015). Is child labour a barrier to school enrolment in low- and middle-income countries? International Journal of Educational Development, 41, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.02.001
Ray, R. & G. Lancaster (2003). Does Child Labour Affect School Attendance and School Performance? Multi Country Evidence on SIMPOC Data. Unpublished Report ILO/IPEC.
Row Botham, S., & Mitter, S. (Eds.). (1994). Dignity and Daily Bread; New Forms of Economic Organizing Among Poor Women in the 3rd World and the 1st. London: Routledge.
Schwikowski, M. (2021, May 16). Child labour on the rise in Africa: DW: 16.05.2022. DW.COM. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.dw.com/en/child-labor-on-the-rise-in-Africa/a-61772211
State Institute of Statistics & ILO (2001). Child Labour in Turkey 1999. Ankara: SIS Printing Division, December 2001.
Tungesvik, R (2000) Education Child Labour-an initial mapping of the field, LINS: Oslo College/Hogskolen Oslo.
Tutor house. (2022, March 8). Gender inequality in Education. Gender Inequality In Education Tutor House. Retrieved June 13, 2022, from https://tutorhouse.co.uk/blog/gender-inequality-in-education
UNICEF. (2021, June 9). Child labour. UNICEF. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour
UNICEF. (2021, June 9). Child labour. UNICEF. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour#:~:text=The%20consequences%20are% 20staggering.,rights %20and%20threateni ng%20their%20futures.
UNICEF (2007). The State of the World’s Children, New York: UNICEF.
Wainana, James (2011, June). District warns Against child labour. The star -Accessed at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201106201399.html on 11/4/2016
World vision Australia (2012). Discuss child labour is better than living in poverty. Accessed from: http://www.worldvision.com.au/OurWork/Solutions/ChildRescue.aspx Accessed on 6/6/2016
Zibani, Nadia (2002). “Gender Differentials in Children’s Work Activities: 1988-98,” Chapter 6 in Ragui Assaad, ed. The Egyptian Labour Market in an Era of Reform. New York and Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, pp. 178-220.